Climate Change Australia State of Play 2024: will there ever be climate resilient housing for the poor and disadvantaged?

 

IMAGE: The Guardian, 9 December 2023

Australian Council of Social Service (ACOSS), "ACOSS Summer Heat Survey 2024", 1 March 2024, excerpts:

* Introduction

Summers are becoming hotter with climate change. In fact, the last nine years were the world’s hottest on record, with 2023 being the hottest year to date. Australia is experiencing more very hot days and heatwaves, and Bureau of Meteorology data forecasts more days where the national daily average is over 40 degrees. For people in remote areas and places like central and northern Australia, high temperatures are already common and daily temperatures reach 35 degrees for over half the year.

Severely hot days and heatwaves affect people experiencing financial and social disadvantage worst because they have fewer resources and choices to protect themselves from extreme heat. This is an urgent and critical public health problem. Heatwaves cause more deaths than all other extreme weather events combined. In Australia, there were an estimated 36,000 deaths associated with heat between 2006 and 2017. A lack of access to energy-efficient homes is often a primary factor in these deaths.

People experiencing financial and social disadvantage are vulnerable to high temperatures because they often live in homes that are poorly insulated, with no or limited shading; and no air conditioning or fans to help cool indoor temperatures. Even if the home has air conditioning and/or fans, rising energy costs mean that people on low incomes often cannot afford to run them. They are also less likely to have rooftop solar, which would significantly reduce their energy bills.

Further, people in rental properties are not able to make changes in their home that could make them more liveable, healthy and safe. Minimum rental standards could address this problem by placing requirements on landlords to ensure their property protects tenants against heat or cold. For example, the ACT requires landlords to have ceiling insulation and Victoria is implementing minimal rental standards.

ACOSS conducted a public, online Heat Survey over the 2023-24 summer to explore the intersection between high temperatures, energy performance of homes, energy costs and income. The data is gathered to advocate for support for people experiencing financial and social disadvantage to secure cooler, healthier and more climate-resilient homes, putting people with the least at the centre of government policy and planning.

The survey gives us valuable insight into how severely high heat affects people’s physical and mental health, their wellbeing and activity when they cannot cool their homes. The survey highlights how seriously poverty and poor energy-performing homes can reduce people’s resilience and capacity to cope with debilitating hot weather.

The ACOSS Heat Survey was open from 1 December 2023 to 28 January 2024. It was made available online via the survey tool, TypeformTM.

* Key findings

Exposure to high heat is a major threat to human health. More people die in Australia from heatwaves than all other extreme events combined. With climate change, Australia is becoming hotter. Very hot days and heatwaves are becoming more common. People experiencing financial and social disadvantage are worst impacted by these events.

Those worst affected experience a combination of:

• homes with poor energy performance;

• high energy prices;

• low incomes; and

• health conditions.

To track the intersection between housing, energy costs, heat, and people experiencing financial and social disadvantage, ACOSS conducted a public, online Heat Survey over the summer months, from December 2023 to January 2024. We received 1007 responses from people across the country, including: 66.1% receiving income support; 19.2% in social housing; 36.1% in private rental; 6.4% First Nations respondents. Additionally, 62.7% reported they or someone in their household has a disability or chronic health condition.

The survey found the majority of 1007 people surveyed (80.4%) said their homes get too hot. This was often to do with being in homes with low energy efficiency (e.g., no insulation or shading, dark roofing, no eaves).

More than half (56.7%) could not cool their home because:

• they do not have air conditioners or fans, or have them but they are broken, or have them only in part of the home or they are ineffective in cooling the home; or

• if they had functioning air conditioners and or fans, they could not afford to run them.

People most likely to struggle to cool their homes were:

• people in social housing (78.3%) or private rental (65.7%) with limited control to modify their home or access working efficient air conditioners to better deal with extreme temperatures;

• people receiving income support (60.8%) with limited resources to modify their homes, afford air-conditioning or fans, or afford the running costs to cool their home;

and

• First Nations people (71.9%), two thirds of whom were in social or private rental, and more than three-quarters of whom were receiving income support.

Exposure to high temperatures in the home has a range of serious negative impacts on household members. Respondents to the survey reported:

• Negative physical and mental health impacts, making them unwell (80.5% of all 1007 respondents; 94% of First Nations respondents). For many, the heat seriously aggravated existing chronic health conditions or disabilities.

• Having to seek medical attention for heat stress (14% of all respondents; 25% of First Nations respondents).

• Difficulty sleeping (94% of all respondents; 98% of First Nations respondents), reduced productivity for work and study, and raised tensions in the home.

• Avoiding everyday household activities due to the heat (like housework and cooking).

While medical and government advice often is to leave home to go to a cooler place during very hot weather, this is not always easy. Most people (90.5%) reported that they face mobility, cost and other barriers to doing so.

Many people reported challenges affording their energy bills which meant they couldn’t cool their home and/or afford other essentials:

• 59.8% reported finding it increasingly difficult to pay their energy bills, which affected their capacity to cool their homes.

• Many reported that high energy bills made it difficult to pay for essentials like food (46.7%), medicine (41.4%) or housing (34%).

First Nations respondents were even more likely to be struggling to pay for essentials such as energy and other bills (86%), food (75%), medicine (63%) and housing (58%).

A quarter of all 1007 people surveyed (25.8%) were currently in energy debt with their retailer or believed they would go into energy debt because they could not afford their next energy bill. People receiving income support (69.4%) and First Nations people (55%) were more likely to say they had an energy debt or that they considered it to be imminent.

We note that while the people surveyed are currently housed, extremes of temperature present more severe health risks from exposure and threats to life itself to people living on the streets or sleeping rough.

Findings from the ACOSS 2024 Heat Survey raise similar concerns to the previous ACOSS 2023 Heat Survey Report and Sweltering Cities’ 2021 and 2022 Summer Survey Reports.

However, a hotter summer in 2023/24, coupled with rising costs for energy, housing, food and other essentials were reflected in people’s comments. There was a clear level of distress amongst people surveyed about the growing challenge to reduce the impacts of

heat while affording energy bills and avoiding – or compounding existing - energy debt.

For people experiencing financial and social disadvantage, especially those living with disability or a health condition, the situation of hot homes that cannot be cooled remains untenable, putting lives at risk. The situation facing First Nations people surveyed is much worse on almost every measure. Therefore, prioritising this report’s recommendations for First Nations communities is essential.

Almost all 1007 people who completed the 2024 Heat Survey (96.5%) called on governments to do more to improve homes to be more resilient to extreme heat (and cold) and to support people to be able to afford energy bills and other essentials....

Read the full 30 page report and recommendations at:

https://www.acoss.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/ACOSSHeatSurveyReport2024.pdf

Only two of the seven local government councils in the NSW Northern Rivers regions have made a genuine effort to divest themselves of fossil fuel industry investments

 

ECHO, 28 February 2024:

Byron Shire Council investments in fossil fuel projects as of Jan 2024 PIC Byron Shire Council

Byron Shire Council investments in projects linked to fossil fuel production decreased significantly after the NSW Treasury Corporation (TCorp) relaxed rules last year.

Investment reports included in last week’s agenda for the council’s ordinary monthly meeting showed the council had 56% of its investment funds lodged with fossil fuel aligned projects by the end of January 2024.

The figure was a decrease compared to 71% at the end of December 2023 and 85% at the end of the 2022-2023 financial year.

Staff credited the removal of a state covenant requiring local governments to invest TCorp loans mostly in institutions with A+ credit ratings or stronger.

Institutions offering investments in the ‘ethical’ area still mainly had lower credit ratings of BBB, or weren’t rated at all, staff said, citing credit unions as an example.

Staff noted the council’s diversified approach to investment was aimed at achieving short, medium, and long-term results.

Investment was regulated by TCorp, which until late last year effectively forced NSW local governments to bank at least a quarter of their low interest TCorp loans in A rated institutions or higher.

The council wasn’t allowed at the time to invest any more than 40% of the loans in A- rated institutions, 30% in BBB+ rated institutions and 5% in institutions rated BBB- and below.

Credit ratings allowed ranged from BBB- and below, or not rated, to AAA, with councils also encouraged to invest in TCorp itself.

End of financial year 2022-2023 figures from the council showed of nearly $65 million invested at the time, 85% was helping support fossil fuel aligned projects via various bonds, term deposits and other accounts..... [my yellow highlighting]

Read the full article here.

At the end of the 2022-23 financial year Richmond Valley Council had a cash held in banks & investment portfolio of $90.668 million. Of which $48.087 million or 53 per cent of the total was invested with financial institutions which do not invest in or finance the fossil fuel industry.

As of 30 June 2023 Clarence Valley Council investment portfolio stood at $156.357 million. 

Of which only $12 million is invested with financial institutions which do not invest in or finance the fossil fuel industry. Representing a paltry 7.67 per cent of council's investments. 

At the ordinary monthly meeting of 25 July 2023 all nine councillors voted to simply note Clarence Valley Council's investment position. Which appears to indicate that this local government is not overly interested in living up to rhetoric expressed in the past.

On 30 June 2023 Ballina Shire Council's investment portfolio stood at $104.300 million, of which only $8 million or 7.67 per cent was invested with financial institutions which do not invest in or finance the fossil fuel industry. As councillors there also voted to note the report without comment, there is no indication that council will be increasing its green investments anytime soon.

Tweed Shire Council valued its investment portfolio at $431.958 as at 30 June 2023. None of the investments listed were identified as being invested with financial institutions which do not invest in or finance the fossil fuel industry.

Lismore City Council listed the face value of its investment portfolio as $133.719 million. Council also had approximately $1.9 million held in various bank accounts which were deemed as transactional accounts and are not included in the investment portfolio. Council takes care to note that it holds no funds in fossil free investments or 0 per cent.

Finally, Kyogle Council published its 2022-23 financial statement in December 2023 and did not identify investments as a single line item, so nothing was to be gleaned as to what if any money it had invested with financial institutions which do not invest in or finance the fossil fuel industry.

Australian Bureau of Meteorology partners with European Centre to ensure more eyes on Earth

 

Copernicus Sentinel Satellites providing all weather, day & night Earth-observation data to feed into a range of services for monitoring weather, land & ocean environments and supporting civil security activities. IMAGE: The European Space Agency

Australian Bureau of Meteorology, media release, 16 February 2024:

The Bureau of Meteorology (the Bureau) has signed an agreement with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) on collaboration, data and knowledge sharing and capability exchange programs.

A five-year strategic relationship agreement was signed this week by the Bureau's CEO and Director, Dr Andrew Johnson, and the Centre's Director-General, Dr Florence Rabier.

The Bureau has been invited to work with ECMWF as part of the Copernicus Climate Change Service. Copernicus is the Earth observation component of the European Union’s space programme and includes satellite and in situ observations combined with expert modelling to provide services such as the Climate Change Service implemented by ECMWF.

“Under this agreement we are adding long-range global forecasts from the Bureau of Meteorology’s Australian Community Climate and Earth System Simulator – also known as ACCESS – to the Copernicus multi-model global ensemble. ACCESS will join other world-leading models, demonstrating the importance of scientific collaboration and of Australia’s contribution to the international community," Dr Rabier said.

“This is an important ongoing partnership for ECMWF, the benefits of which will be felt worldwide in the ensemble forecasts produced. It will also lead to further improvements in weather and climate modelling and research conducted in Europe and Australia.”

ACCESS is the Bureau's extended and long-range forecast system. It is a state-of-the-art dynamical (physics-based) forecast modelling system, which uses ocean, atmosphere, ice and land observations to initiate forecasts for the season ahead.

There are eight contributors to the ECMWF Copernicus multi-system global ensemble and the addition of the Bureau's ACCESS forecasts brings this total to nine.

"This new agreement enables the Bureau to access more comprehensive data from some of the world’s best forecast models to support and improve its own services," Dr Johnson said.

"It also provides more opportunities for joint research projects exploring weather and climate impacts in the southern hemisphere and around the globe."

"This is a huge accomplishment for the Bureau and Australia. The benefits of this partnership will lead to future improvements in Australian weather and climate products and services for the benefit of the Australian community."

The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) is an independent intergovernmental organisation supported by 35 states. It is both a research institute and a 24/7 operational service, producing and disseminating numerical weather predictions to its Member States. The ECMWF was established in 1975 and its purpose – then as now – was to pool Europe's meteorological resources to produce accurate climate data and medium-range forecasts - ECMWF |Advancing global NWP through international collaboration. It implements the Copernicus Climate Change Service and the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service on behalf of the European Commission. Homepage | Copernicus.

The Bureau of Meteorology is Australia's national weather, climate, oceans, water and space weather agency. Its expertise and services assist Australians in dealing with the harsh realities of their natural environment, including drought, floods, fires, storms, tsunami and tropical cyclones. Through regular forecasts, warnings, monitoring and advice spanning the Australian region and Antarctic territory, the Bureau provides one of the most fundamental and widely used services of government - Australia's official weather forecasts & weather radar - Bureau of Meteorology (bom.gov.au)

That Australia faces rising air, land & sea surface temperatures is a situation that can no longer be denied and yet federal, state and local governments are not fully addressing the thermal mass of subdivision & individual residential dwelling design

 

The fact that ambient air temperature, lad surface and sea surface temperatures are rising across the Australian continent can no longer be denied.

GRAPH: Australian Bureau of Meteorology

In New South Wales generally average maximum temperatures in the month of January 2024 ranged from around 24°C to 36-39°C, spiked by days on end of heatwave temperatures which often broke temperature records for individual localities.

MAPPING:  Australian Bureau of Meteorology

In the north-east coastal zone of the state the minimum air temperature was 1°C higher and maximum air temperature 1-2°C higher than they were between 1981-2010.

In January the highest Northern Rivers region minimum & maximum recorded daily temperature range was:

Evans Head 24.8—38°C

Grafton 24.5—37.6°C

Yamba 25.6—37.2°C

Murwillumbah 27.1—36.2°C

Casino 27.1—36.2°C

Lismore 24.5—35.6°C

Tabulam 23.0—34.9°C

Byron Bay 25.6—32.7°C

Ballina 24.9—34.2°C

Note: These are the nine official Bureau of Meteorology weather stations in the Northern Rivers region.

Yet despite all this new subdivision schemes and housing designs are paying little more than lip service to sustainability and mitigating the thermal load of both the internal road networks of these subdivisions or the collective & individual loads of dwelling contained there in.

Apparently, multi-dwelling structures that increasing look like a collection of boxes are skating through BASIX requirements on the presumption that each individual box within these boxes will be fully air conditioned at some point before occupation or that if ceiling fans are fitted to some of the rooms then this will mitigate heat.

An assumption which:

(i) takes no account of the increasing stress air conditioning places on a household's cost of living. Because the price per kilowatt hour & associated charges of residential electricity supply continues to rise and commonly these multiple dwelling boxes are not built with any rooftop solar power grid to mitigate cost;

(ii) completely ignores the increasing risk of destructive storms causing levels of damage to power supply infrastructure that cuts power supply to both collections of streets or entire towns for days/weeks at a time. As occurred in heatwave conditions in 2024; and

(iii) appears to leave the thermal load of closely clustered internal roads out of the equation completely.

I expect the latest collection of boxes being considered by Clarence Valley Council will also get the nod because I have yet to see this local government apply the full suite of climate change policies to every development application before deciding consent. The heat footprint of an application rarely rates a mention in Council-in-the-Chamber debates or elicits questions to senior staff attending. Neither are there many mentions of the heat island affect caused by new roads, pavements and driveways. Nor does the wind resistance factor of a proposed building arise - and given the entire Clarence Coast is now in a cyclone risk zone that borders on the negligent when assessing new development applications.

Artists impression of street view of 6 Yamba Road, Yamba proposed subdivision. IMAGE: BDA

Set out below are some basic facts about how the freestanding houses, town houses, duplexes, units and flats we live in attract and retain heat.

Australian Government, Your Home, retrieved 19 February 2024:

Passive Design

What is thermal mass?

In simple terms, thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb, store and release heat. Materials such as concrete, bricks and tiles absorb and store heat. They are therefore said to have high thermal mass. Materials such as timber and cloth do not absorb and store heat and are said to have low thermal mass.

In considering thermal mass, you will also need to consider thermal lag. Thermal lag is the rate at which heat is absorbed and released by a material. Materials with long thermal lag times (for example, brick and concrete) will absorb and release heat slowly; materials with short thermal lag times (for example, steel) will absorb and release heat quickly.

Thermal mass

Thermal mass, or the ability to store heat, is also known as volumetric heat capacity (VHC). VHC is calculated by multiplying the specific heat capacity by the density of a material:

• Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a material by 1°C.

• Density is the weight per unit volume of a material (ie how much a cubic metre the material weighs).

The higher the VHC, the higher the thermal mass.

Water has the highest VHC of any common material. The following table shows that it takes 4186 kilojoules (kJ) of energy to raise the temperature of 1 cubic metre of water by 1°C, whereas it takes only 2060kJ to raise the temperature of an equal volume of concrete by the same amount. In other words, water has around twice the heat storage capacity of concrete. The VHC of rock usually ranges between brick and concrete, depending on density. Most common building materials with high VHC also tend to be quite conductive, making them poor insulators.

Thermal lag

How fast heat is absorbed and released by uninsulated material is referred to as thermal lag. It is influenced by:

• heat capacity of the material

• conductivity of the material

• difference in temperature (known as the temperature differential or ΔT) between each face of the material

• thickness of the material

• surface area of the material

• texture, colour and surface coatings (for example, dark, matte or textured surfaces absorb and re-radiate more energy than light, smooth, reflective surfaces)

• exposure of the material to air movement and air speed.

To be effective in most climates, thermal mass should be able to absorb and re-radiate close to its full heat storage capacity in a single day–night (diurnal) cycle.

In moderate climates, a 12-hour lag cycle is ideal. In colder climates subject to long cloudy periods, lags of up to 7 days can be useful, providing there is enough solar exposed glazing to ‘charge’ the thermal mass in sunny weather.

Embodied energy

Some high thermal mass materials, such as concrete, cement-stabilised rammed earth, and brick, have high embodied energy when used in the quantities required. This highlights the importance of using such construction only where it delivers a clear thermal benefit. When used appropriately, the savings in heating and cooling energy from the thermal mass can outweigh the cost of its embodied energy over the lifetime of the building. Consideration should be given to using high thermal mass materials with lower embodied energy, such as water, adobe or recycled brick.

Why is thermal mass important?

When used correctly, materials with high thermal mass can significantly increase comfort and reduce energy use in your home. Thermal mass acts as a thermal battery to moderate internal temperatures by averaging out day−night (diurnal) extremes.

In winter, thermal mass can absorb heat during the day from direct sunlight. It re-radiates this warmth back into the home throughout the night.

In summer, thermal mass can be used to keep the home cool. If the sun is blocked from reaching the mass (for example, with shading), the mass will instead absorb warmth from inside the home. You can then allow cool breezes and convection currents to pass over the thermal mass overnight to draw out the stored energy.

Conversely, poor use of thermal mass can reduce comfort and increase energy use. Inappropriate thermal mass can absorb all the heat you produce on a winter night or radiate heat to you all night as you try to sleep during a summer heatwave.....

CLIMATE CRISIS ANALYSIS: “2023 has broken so many records that a number of new hypotheses, including the dawn of a new phase in the global warming rate, have been floated "

 

Starting 2024 the way we ended 2023.........

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE PERSPECTIVE

ABC News (Australia), 8 February 2024:

Global temperatures through January were the warmest on record at 1.66 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, according to data released by the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).

The month was 0.12C above the previous warmest January in 2020 and extends the run of record warm months to eight, following similar unprecedented temperatures from June to December last year.

Monthly Global Temperature Anomaly

Relative to pre-industrial 1850-1900 baseline

The greatest anomalies last month were seen across eastern Canada and south-west Asia where temperatures were nearly 5C above the 1991-2020 average.

Australia's mean was 1.54C above the 1961-1990 baseline average, making it the country's third warmest January on record, according to the Bureau of Meteorology.

The run of abnormal heat has now lifted the 12-month for the first time.

With the target now temporarily breached, a permanent rise above 1.5C is now projected to arrive in less than 10 years.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Secretary-General Petteri Taalas said the agency was "sounding the alarm" that the world would "breach the 1.5C level on a temporary basis with increasing frequency".

Oceans simmering - warm enough for a tropical cyclone off the NSW coast

The average global sea surface temperature (SST) was also at unprecedented levels last month, a staggering 0.26C warmer than the previous January record in 2016 and only 0.01°C off the all-time record from August 2023.

The heat observed in the world's oceans has been a notable feature of the climate during the past year – passing global monthly records for 10 consecutive months.

The record run is almost certain to reach 11 months as the Earth's water temperature is currently running at levels well beyond all previous years — daily SSTs climbed to 21.05C this week, more than 0.2C above the previous February high and above the previous all-time high of 21.02C from August 2023.

The warm global waters are also being felt off Australia's east coast.

Data from the Climate Change Institute shows parts of the northern Tasman Sea are currently as much as 3C above average at around 28C - equal to a typical summer water temperature off the tropical Queensland coast.

The waters are so warm right now off the NSW north coast they could theoretically support the formation of a tropical cyclone, exceeding the threshold for development of 26.5C.

While enough evaporation is occurring for a cyclone to form off the NSW coast, they require numerous additional ingredients which are currently absent.

Climate change the main driver of records

Historical data shows than even though El Niño increases global temperatures, the trend during the past 12 months is well outside the typical warming.

"Rapid reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are the only way to stop global temperatures increasing," Deputy Director of the Copernicus Climate Change Service Samantha Burgess said.

However, considering the year after El Niño forms is typically warmer than the previous year, there is a good chance 2024 will end up beating the recent record warm 2023.

Out of the past 15 El Niño episodes, 13 led to a rise in the Earth's air temperature in the second year.

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE PERSPECTIVE

The Guardian (UK), 7 February 2024:

From deadly floods in California to devastating fires in Chile, scientists say the world is not prepared for the climate disasters that are hitting with increasing frequency as human-driven global heating continues to break records.

The hottest year in history has been followed by the warmest ever January. Many regions in the northern hemisphere are sweltering in heatwaves that would be more normal in June. Marine scientists are shocked by the prolonged and intense heat at the surface of the oceans.

Scientists say the extreme heat is mostly the result of human activity, such as the burning of oil, gas and coal and the cutting down of forests. This has been amplified by natural factors, particularly the El Niño – a phenomenon associated with Pacific Ocean warming – that started last year and is expected to continue until spring at the earliest.

This year has a one in three chance of being even hotter than last year’s record, according to the US’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

The higher the global temperature, the greater the risk of fires and flooding. This month alone has seen two grim records of such climate-related disasters.

The Chilean president, Gabriel Boric, has declared two days of national mourning after the country’s deadliest ever forest fires claimed more than 120 lives in the Valparaíso region. This follows a decade-long drought in the area and a shift from diverse natural forests, which are more resilient to fire, to monoculture plantations, which are more vulnerable.

In the US, the governor of California, Gavin Newsom, announced a state of emergency as an “atmospheric river” – which was supercharged by the unusually warm Pacific Ocean – dumped unprecedented amounts of rain on San Diego and neighbouring districts, killing at least three people.

Attribution studies will be needed to ascertain the precise extent to which these particular calamities were drive by human-driven climate disruption, but they are in line with a broader trend towards increasingly severe impacts.

“Fuelled by extreme weather and climate extremes, the frequency of climate-related disasters has dramatically risen in recent years,” said Raul Cordero, a climate professor at the University of Groningen and the University of Santiago. “In some regions of the world, we are facing climate-fuelled disasters for which we are not prepared, and it is unlikely that we will be able to fully adapt to them.”

Richard Betts, of the Met Office’s Hadley Centre in the UK, said many extremes, including longer heatwaves, heavier rainfall, increased drought and more fire weather, were becoming more severe due to human-caused climate change.

“We can still limit the extent to which extremes get worse if we urgently reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero – but with global emissions still rising, it’s hard not to be increasingly concerned about how we will deal with what’s coming,” Betts said. “We already need to adapt to the changes that we’ve already caused, and adaptation will become increasingly difficult the longer we leave it to reduce emissions.”

Of prime concern is what is happening to the oceans, which cover 71% of the planet and absorb most of the excess heat from global warming. In a letter published in the journal Advances in Atmospheric Science last month, a group of scientists warned that sea surface temperatures last year were “off the chart”, with dire implications for atmospheric regulation and storm intensity.....

Guglielmo said scientists were now considering risks that had been unthinkable until recently. “2023 has broken so many records that a number of new hypotheses, including the dawn of a new phase in the global warming rate, have been floated. These hypotheses were not nearly as prevalent a year ago.”